Reading

Reading Passage 1
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.

Vanishing Night  

Most city skies have become virtually empty of stars 

Adapted from Verlyn Klinkenborg 

If humans were truly at home under the moonlight and stars, it would make no difference to us whether we were out and about at night or during the day, the midnight world as visible to us as it is to the vast majority of nocturnal creatures on the globe. Instead, humans are diurnal beings, which means our eyes have evolved to live in the light of the sun. Even while most of us don't think of ourselves as diurnal beings, primates, mammals, or Earthlings, this is a basic evolutionary fact. Yet it's the only way to explain what we've done to the night: we've filled it with light to fulfill our needs.

Damming a river is similar to this type of engineering. Its advantages come with drawbacks, known as light pollution, whose impacts experts are only now beginning to investigate. Light pollution is mostly the result of poor lighting design, which allows artificial light to beam outward and upward into the sky, where it is not needed, rather than concentrating it downward, where it is wanted. Wherever human light enters the natural environment, it affects some part of life — migration, reproduction, and eating.

The term 'light pollution' would have been meaningless for much of human history. Imagine a starry night in 1800, when London was one of the world's most populous cities, and you're strolling toward it. Nearly a million people lived there, making due with candles and lanterns like they always had. For another seven years, there would be no gaslights in the streets or squares.

For much of human history, the term "light pollution" would have been meaningless. Imagine wandering toward London on a starry night in 1800, when it was one of the world's most populous cities. Nearly a million people lived there, surviving on candles and lanterns as they had for centuries. There would be no gaslights in the streets or squares for another seven years.

We've lit up the night as if it were an unoccupied country, despite the fact that this is far from the case. The number of nocturnal species among mammals alone is astounding. Light is a potent biological force that functions as a magnet for many organisms. Songbirds and seabirds are 'caught' by searchlights on land or by the light from gas flares on maritime oil platforms, circling and circling in the hundreds until they drop, according to scientists. Migrating birds are more likely to collide with brilliantly lighted buildings at night, and immature birds suffer far more than adults.

Insects, of course, congregate around streetlights, and for many bat species, feeding on those insects is a critical means of survival. The European lesser horseshoe bat began to disappear in some Swiss valleys after street lights were installed, possibly because those valleys were suddenly overrun with light-feeding pipistrelle bats. Other nocturnal mammals, such as desert rodents and badgers, are more cautious about hunting for food under the permanent full moon to fight pollution because they've become easier targets for predators.

Some birds, such as blackbirds and nightingales, sing at unnatural hours when exposed to artificial light. Scientists have discovered that long artificial days – and short artificial nights – induce early breeding in a variety of birds. Because a longer day allows for more feeding, it can also have an impact on migration schedules. The issue is that migration, like most other aspects of bird behavior, is a precisely timed biological behavior. If you leave too soon, you may arrive at your destination too soon for the nesting conditions to be favorable.

Nesting sea turtles, which seek out dark beaches, find fewer and fewer of them to bury their eggs on. When the baby sea turtles emerge from the eggs, they gravitate toward the brighter, more reflective sea horizon but find themselves confused by artificial lighting behind the beach. In Florida alone, hatching losses number in the hundreds of thousands every year. Frogs and toads living on the side of major highways suffer nocturnal fight levels that are as much as a million times brighter than normal, disturbing nearly every aspect of their behavior, including their night-time breeding choruses.    

Light pollution was originally assumed to exclusively impact astronomers who needed to see the night sky in all its glory. Indeed, some of the first civic initiatives to minimize light pollution were conducted half a century ago to safeguard the vista from Flagstaff, Arizona's Lowell Observatory. Flagstaff was named the first International Dark Sky City in 2001. The fight against light pollution has now extended across the globe. More and more governments, and even entire countries, are pledging to decrease unwanted glare.

Questions 1-7
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
Choose True,False, or Not Given on each statement.

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1. Few people recognise nowadays that human beings are designed to function best in daylight.

2. Most light pollution is caused by the direction of artificial lights rather than their intensity.

3. By 1800 the city of London had such a large population, it was already causing light pollution.

4. The fishermen of the South Atlantic are unaware of the light pollution they are causing.

5. Shadows from the planet Venus are more difficult to see at certain times of year.

6. In some Swiss valleys, the total number of bats declined rapidly after the introduction of streetlights.

7. The first attempts to limit light pollution were carried out to help those studying the stars.

Questions 8-13
Complete the table below.
Type your answers with NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage

8. The worst-affected birds are those which are ............. .

9. They bump into ............. which stand out at night.

10. They are more at risk from ................... .

11. Early migration may mean the ................. are not suitable on arrival.

12. They suffer from the decreasing number of ................. .

13. If they are near ............... , their routines will be upset.

Reading passage 2 

you should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below. 

Is there a psychologist in the building?

— CHRISTIAN JARRETT reports on psychology’s place in new architectural development.—

A The environment has a huge impact on us - the rebuilding of one south London school as a stunning emotional, behavioral, and cognitive example. That example of how building design affects human space is changing at a rate not seen in a generation in the United Kingdom. Surely psychology has something to say about all of the schools in the area being classified as the worst — now it is this shift. Is anyone paying attention, though? 'There is a large amount of relevant psychological research, but we're talking to ourselves right now,' says Chris Spencer, professor of environmental psychology at the University of Sheffield. Spencer recalls a recent talk he gave in which he called on fellow researchers to make a greater effort to communicate their findings to architects and planners. ‘I was amazed at the response of many of the senior researchers, who would say: “I’m doing my research for pure science, the industry can take it or leave it”. But there are models of how to apply environmental psychology to real problems, if you know where to look Professor Frances Kuo is an example.  

B Kuo's website contains images and clear English explanations of her Human Environment Research Laboratory's research. A research based on police records indicated that apartment complexes in inner-city Chicago surrounded by greater vegetation experienced 52 percent fewer crimes than those with little or no greenery. Greenery, according to Frances Kuo and her co-researcher William Sullivan, reduces crime – as long as visibility is maintained – because it reduces aggression, brings neighbors together outdoors, and the visible presence of people deters criminals.

C Professor of environmental psychology David Uzzell states, "Environmental psychologists are in high demand." 'We're requested to contribute to the planning, design, and administration of a variety of environments, including neighborhoods, offices, schools, health, transportation, traffic, and leisure areas, with the goal of increasing people-environment fit.' The reconstruction of one south London school, according to Uzzell, is a dramatic example of how building design may positively alter human behavior. It was once classified as the area's worst school; currently, it is recognized as one of the country's twenty most improved schools.

D Uzzell was a part of a groundbreaking study involving MSc students from England and Scotland. As part of a community initiative in a run-down district of Glasgow, architecture students in Scotland acted as designers and environmental psychology students in England acted as advisors. The psychology students pushed the architectural students to explore who their client group was, to think about concerns like congestion and social cohesiveness, and to use psychological approaches like observation and interviewing local individuals about their requirements. The collaborative project currently stands as a one-off experiment. ‘Hopefully these trainee architects will now go away with some understanding of the psychological issues involved in design and will take into account people’s needs,’ says Uzzell.    

E   Hilary Barker, a recent psychology graduate, now works at a design firm. She's part of a four-person research team that contributes to the company's overarching goal of assisting clients in making better use of their office space. Her team all has psychology or social science degrees, although the remainder of the firm is primarily made up of architects and interior designers. 'To be honest, what I do is pretty unique,' adds Barker. 'I consider myself really fortunate to be able to put my degree to such good use.' According to Barker, the team conducts observational studies on behalf of businesses to determine how occupants use their space. The companies are often surprised by the findings, for example that staff use meeting rooms for quiet, individual work.    

F  Hospital design is one area where insights from environmental-behavior studies have undoubtedly influenced construction. 'The government has a checklist of criteria that must be followed in the design of new hospitals, and they are largely based on Professor Roger Ulrich's work,' says the author. According to Chris Spencer. Ulrich's research has revealed, for example, how a patient's window view might influence their rehabilitation. According to Dr. John Zeisel, even the layout of a hospital can have an impact on people's health. 'When people become disoriented in hospitals, they become worried, which suppresses their immune system and makes their treatment less effective. You might think that way-finding round the hospital is the responsibility of the person who puts all the signs up, but the truth is that the basic layout of a building is what helps people find their way around,’ he says.   

G  Zeisel emphasizes the need for a better balance of private and shared rooms in hospitals. In private rooms, he claims, "falls are minimized" and "fewer prescription errors occur." There is also evidence that shows how important it is for patients to have access to the outdoors and that hospital gardens contribute significantly to patient well-being. However, Zeisel agrees with Chris Spencer's concern that environmental psychology research's teachings aren't getting through. 'There is definitely a gap between what we know in social science and what designers and architects know,' Zeisel explains. He believes that most industries, from sports to film- making, have now recognised the importance of an evidence-based approach, and that the building trade needs to formulate itself more in that vein, and to recognise that there is relevant research out there. ‘It would be outrageous, silly, to go ahead with huge building projects without learning the lessons from the new towns established between 30 and 40 years ago,’ he warns.

Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for A-G from the list of headings below.

List of Headings
i. A comparison between similar buildings
ii. The negative reaction of local residents
iii. An unusual job for a psychologist
iv. A type of building benefiting from prescribed guidelines
v. The need for government action
vi. A failure to use available information in practical ways
vii. Academics with an unhelpful attitude
viii. A refusal by architects lo accept criticism
ix. A unique cooperative scheme
x. The expanding scope of environmental psychology

14. Paragraph A

Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for A-G from the list of headings below.

15. Paragraph B

Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for A-G from the list of headings below.

16. Paragraph C

Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for A-G from the list of headings below.

17. Paragraph D

Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for A-G from the list of headings below.

18. Paragraph E

Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for A-G from the list of headings below.

19. Paragraph F

Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.

Choose the correct heading for A-G from the list of headings below.

20. Paragraph G

Refer to Passage 2

Questions 21 and 22
Choose TWO letters, A-E.

Which TWO of the following benefits are said to arise from the use of environmental psychology when planning buildings?

22. Which TWO of the following benefits are said to arise from the use of environmental psychology when planning buildings?

Refer to Passage 2

Questions 23 and 24
Choose TWO letters, A-E.

23. Which TWO of the following research methods are mentioned in the passage?

24. Which TWO of the following research methods are mentioned in the passage?

Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

25. The students from England suggested that the Scottish students should identify their ............ .

Complete the sentences below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

26. John Zeisel believes that if the ................. of a building is clear, patient outcomes will improve.

Reading Passage 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40, which are based on Reading Passage 3 below.

Have teenagers always existed? 

Homo erectus may not have had culture or language, but did they have teenagers? Some anthropologists claim evidence of a teenage phase in human fossils, and this subject has been debated in recent years. This isn't only a dispute among academics. Humans are now the only species on Earth to go through an adolescent phase, and we have no understanding why. Finding out when adolescence initially appeared and what kinds of changes it was associated within our bodies and behaviors could help us grasp its purpose. Why do we get a growth spurt at such a late age?

Until recently, the most common explanation was that physical growth is slowed by our need to develop huge brains and learn all of the human behavior patterns, such as speech and social interaction. Humans cannot readily fend for themselves while such behavior is still growing, hence it is essential to stay small and appear youthful. This will urge your parents and other members of your social group to continue to look after you. Furthermore, research on mammals has revealed a clear link between brain size and growth rate, with larger-brained animals taking longer to reach adulthood. Humans are on the other end of the scale. If this theory is correct, and the development of large brains accounts for the teenage growth spurt, the origin of adolescence should have been with the evolution of our own species (Homo sapiens) and Neanderthals, starting almost 200,000 years ago. The trouble is, some of the fossil evidence seems to tell a different story.    

The human fossil record is exceedingly limited, with only a few fossilized offspring. Nonetheless, anthropologists have begun to look at what may be learned about our ancestors' lives from these children in recent years. The renowned Turkana kid, an almost complete skeleton of Homo erectus from 1.6 million years ago discovered in Kenya in 1984, is one of the most studied. It's difficult to tell how old someone is just by looking at their skeleton. Even with a modern human, you can only make an educated guess based on the teeth and bones' developmental stage and the skeleton's overall size.   

To estimate age, you'll need as many developmental signs as feasible. The Turkana boy's teeth indicated that he was ten or two years old. His skeleton indicated he was 13, but he was as tall as a modern 15-year-old. Margaret Clegg analyzed a collection of 18th and 19th-century skeletons whose ages at death were known, according to Susan Anton of New York University. She discovered comparable inconsistencies to those of the Turkana boy when she tried to age the skeletons without consulting the records. For example, one 10-year-old boy had a dental age of 9, a 6-year-old skeleton, yet was tall enough to be 11.The Turkana kid still has a rounded skull, and needs more growth to reach the adult shape,’ Anton adds. She thinks that Homo erectus had already developed modern human patterns of growth, with a late, if not quite so extreme, adolescent spurt. She believes Turkana boy was just about to enter it.    

If Anton is correct, this theory challenges the widely held belief that late growth is associated with the development of a large brain. University of Illinois anthropologist Steven Leigh goes even further. He feels that the concept of adolescent growth as catch-up growth fails to explain why the rate of development jumps so substantially. He claims that many apes have growth spurts in certain body regions connected with achieving maturity, which makes sense because they can reduce the chance of being hungry while developing by timing the short but essential periods of maturation to coincide with seasons when food is plentiful. The fact that the entire skeleton is involved is what distinguishes humans. For Leigh, this is the key.   

Adolescence, he claims, evolved as a necessary feature of efficient upright walking and to accommodate more complex brains. Our forefathers initially walked on two legs six million years ago, according to fossil evidence. If being able to walk well was necessary for survival, the adolescent growth spurt could have extremely ancient beginnings. While many anthropologists would see Leigh's theory as a stretch, he isn't the only one who has come up with novel theories concerning adolescent development. 

Another method, which has yielded unexpected results, is to examine tooth growth in minute detail. Apes and humans' growing teeth get ridges on their enamel surface every nine days or so. These are similar to tree trunk rings in that the number of them indicates how long it took for the crown of a tooth to form. The rate at which teeth develop in mammals is intimately tied to the rate at which the brain grows and the age at which you mature. Teeth are useful life history indicators because their growth is less affected by the environment and diet than the skeleton's growth.  

Researchers from France and Spain revealed their findings from a study of Neanderthal teeth last year, providing a more conclusive piece of evidence. Neanderthals had substantially faster tooth growth than Homo erectus, which may have resulted in a shorter childhood. Fernando Ramirez-Rozzi, the lead researcher, believes Neanderthals died young – around 25 years old – due to the cold, harsh climate they had to face in glacial Europe. They developed to mature more quickly than their forefathers. Without the benefit of an adolescent growth spurt, Neanderthals and Homo erectus had to achieve adulthood rapidly. As a result, we still appear to be the original teenagers.

Questions 27-30
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.

27. In the first paragraph, why does the writer say ‘This is not merely an academic debate’?

28. What was Susan Anton’s opinion of the Turkana boy?

29. What point does Steven Leigh make?

30. What can we learn from a mammal’s teeth?

Questions 31-36
Do the following statements agree with the claims of the writer in Reading Passage 3?
Choose Yes, Not, or Not Given

YES if the statement agrees with the claims of the writer
NOT if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

31. It is difficult for anthropologists to do research on human fossils because they are so rare.

32. Modern methods mean it is possible to predict the age of a skeleton with accuracy.

33. Susan Anton’s conclusion about the Turkana boy reinforces an established idea.

34. Steven Leigh’s ideas are likely to be met with disbelief by many anthropologists

35. Researchers in France and Spain developed a unique method of analysing teeth.

36. There has been too little research comparing the brains of Homo erectus and Neanderthals.

Questions 37-40
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-G, above.
Choose the correct letter between A-G

37. Until recently, delayed growth in humans until adolescence was felt to be due to

38. In her research, Margaret Clegg discovered

39. Steven Leigh though the existence of adolescence is connected to

40. Research on Neanderthals suggests that they had short lived because of